History

A Brief Overview of Filipino-American Colonial Relations

Ash Mach | June 1st, 2026

(adapated from “The Two-Way Exchange” and “How Meaning Changes,” found in the Essays section)

For nearly four centuries, the Philippines was colonized by Western countries; Spain conquered the islands from 1565-1898 and the United States conquered from 1898-1946. Under the guise of “benevolent assimilation” ordered by President William McKinley, the United States established American-style government, communication infrastructures (newspapers, telephones, radio), schools, and more during the early 20th century. The public school system was particularly robust; between 1903 and 1940, the number of schools increased from 3,000 to 13,000. These schools enforced English-language instruction and communication as well as American history, traditions, and democratic principles to paint an idealistic picture of the United States. State-sponsored universities and conservatories were established as well; St. Scholastica's College and the University of the Philippines Conservatory of Music (hereafter UP Conservatory), were established in 1906 and 1916, respectively. Prior to American rule, the musical landscape was largely tied to the Roman Catholic Church. Filipino musicians typically received their training from the clergy, and produced vespers, hymns, and masses to be performed in liturgical services. Formal music schools established by the United States created both a burgeoning secular music scene and a class of highly-trained musicians adept at composing and performing Western music. The UP Conservatory in particular produced Nicanor Abelardo, Francisco Santiago, Lucrecia Kasilag, and Eliseo Pajaro, all of whom led successful careers in the Philippines and abroad. The music schools taught Western music theory and history, training composers to write in genres such as the symphony, concert overtures or symphonic poem. Composing for the orchestra was seen as a respectable endeavor given its technical and lengthy nature.

Views on the American school system were mixed. Some Filipinos feared that English-language schools would create a “homogenous” country with forgotten cultural values. Sociologist Anthony Christian Ocampo described the "benevolent assimilation" behind the new education system as a euphemism for "paternalistic racism," for they did not consider the needs of the Filipino people. Others viewed the school system as positive, for their English-language studies allowed them to work in the government and attend school abroad. The music schools in particular also sought to position Western aesthetic ideals as being technologically superior and more sophisticated. The American government hired foreign professionals to serve as the first teachers at the UP Conservatory with the goal of “rais[ing] the creative skills of the Filipino composers to the same level as composers from the Western world.” This, of course, relies on the problematic assumption that Filipino music was somehow inferior prior to Western intervention. Local news outlets lamented the “lack of music appreciation” in the Philippines compared to the United States and Europe, and cited the absence of a systematic study of music as the cause. Just 23 years after the founding of the UP Conservatory, the first higher-education music textbook written by a Filipino author (Antonio J. Molina) was published and distributed to music institutions across the country. Notably, only European and American sources were referenced in the textbook, further cementing the notion of Western art music as the authoritative source for musical ideals.

The American government also established the Pensionado Act in 1903, which allowed Filipinos to study at higher education institutions in the United States under the condition that they return to the Philippines to become civil servants. As more Filipinos were being educated abroad, the desire for a national identity, apart from the Americans, increased. The arts and humanities proved to be a valuable tool for this endeavor. The University of the Philippines formed an “oriental languages” department in 1924 as interest in Filipino regional languages grew. UP Conservatory professor Francisca Reyes traveled throughout the Philippines to record regional folk dances, eventually leading to their popularity in Manila and the establishment of a canon of national dances. When asked about the inclusion of his own composition, Santiago wrote: “Filipino above all, I thought I should do my part [for] propaganda for our country. I wanted the American public to perceive that we are not savages.” Later, Santiago became the first Filipino director of the UP Conservatory and encouraged the study of indigenous Filipino music at the institution.

Timeline

Sources

Castro, Christi-Anne. Musical Renderings of the Philippine Nation. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.

Chapman, Abraham. “American Policy in the Philippines.” Far Eastern Survey 15, no. 11 (1946): 164-169.

Mojares, Resil B. “The Formation of Filipino Nationality Under U.S. Colonial Rule.” Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 34, no. 1 (2006): 11-32.

Ocampo, Anthony Christian. The Latinos of Asia: How Filipino Americans Break the Rules of Race. Redwood City: Stanford University Press, 2016. 

Onorato, Michael Paul. “United States Influences in the Philippines.” Journal of Third World Studies 4, no. 2 (1987): 22-26.

Santos, Ramon Pagayon. Tunugan: Four Essays on Filipino Music. Quezon City: The University of the Philippines Press, 2005.